Foreword / Introduction

This course is designed to give you a basic overview of some of the technologies, terminologies and influences which define and identify the signage market as a whole. There are a number of factors which have to be taken into account, some of which you may already have heard of or know something about, others which you will be hearing about for the first time. The textbook will address technologies and terminologies which are common in the Signage market, but also which appear in other industries. So, while some may be familiar, the connection to Signage may not be immediately clear.

This course will provide only a cursory look at each of the sectors, as it is designed to provide an introduction. Should your interest be peaked by the content, you will have the opportunity to go into more detail in the second course dealing with Fundamentals. In both courses, the textbooks are interactive in that you are welcome to contribute to the textbook with your own research. You are welcome to supplement the information in this textbook with any relevant information that you find. However, you must remember that all information provided to the textbook must be correctly cited and thereafter, once incorporated, takes on the copyright of the textbook and remains the intellectual property of AM.CO.ZA. Uncited information, unless specifically and clearly indicated as opinion or personal experience, will be removed. 

In order to understand the basics it is necessary to start at the beginning. 

Chapter 1 – History of Machinery

Machines make our lives easier, faster, simpler and more convenient. 

What are machines? Human beings have been using tools since the start of time. Some may say that tools are a defining element in the development of humans, however, there are other animals and even birds which use tools. What distinguishes humans from these animals is the fact that humans manufacture and use machines. Machines are essentially complex tools, comprising multiple elements or parts to make a tool which is capable of doing more than can be achieved with a simple tool. Consider a jack hammer compared to a hand-held hammer and chisel. It is possible to dig more earth, faster and more efficiently with a jack hammer. 

The development of tools resulted in the speeding up of the development of the human race. Machine tools can be traced back to ancient times, when humans used simple tools, such as hammers, chisels, and lathes, to create objects from raw materials. The first recorded use of a machine tool was by the Egyptians, who used a bow drill to bore holes in wood and stone around 3000 BC. The ancient Greeks and Romans also developed various machine tools, such as the screw-cutting lathe, the water mill, and the hydraulic press. (i)

The Industrial Revolution, which spanned from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, was a period of rapid technological and social change that transformed the production of goods and services. Machine tools played a crucial role in this transformation, as they enabled the mass production of standardised and interchangeable parts, such as screws, nails, gears, and cylinders. Some of the most influential machine tools invented during this era were the steam engine, the power loom, the spinning jenny, the milling machine, and the metal planer. (ii)

Machine tools continued to evolve and improve in the 20th and 21st centuries, as new sources of power, materials, and control systems were introduced. Some of the most significant developments were the electric motor, the computer numerical control (CNC), the laser, the plasma cutter, and the additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing. These innovations enabled machine tools to perform faster, more accurately, more complexly, and more efficiently than ever before. (iii)

It is interesting to note that many of these items mentioned as significant developments form the basis of the modern signage industry. We will address the Signage Industry in a later chapter of this course.

The precursor to the computer was the calculator developed by British inventor Charles Babbage. Although this early invention was plagued with errors, it was the first step in the creation of machines which do the ‘thinking’ work of humans.  Babbage’s invention was improved by Swedish inventor and printer Georg Scheutz, with his son Edvard, in 1834. Though it was mechanically temperamental, and a more modest scale than Babbage’s version, their calculating engine successfully produced the first mathematical tables calculated and printed by machine.

The word robot wouldn’t appear until 1920, when Czech writer Karel Čapek coined the word in his play, R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). Derived from the Czech word robota, meaning “forced labour” or “drudgery,” he used it to describe a manufactured humanoid workforce. Decades before Čapek, however, the possibilities of mechanisation and steam power were already inspiring mechanical beings in fiction. Steam-powered mechanical men began appearing in inexpensively-produced adventure stories in the late 1860’s. The popular tales featured the heroic exploits of an inventor and his fantastic creations. (iv)

The Machine Age is an era that includes the early-to-mid 20th century, sometimes also including the late 19th century. An approximate dating would be about 1880 to 1945. Considered to be at its peak in the time between the first and second world wars, the Machine Age overlaps with the late part of the Second Industrial Revolution (which ended around 1914 at the start of World War I) and continues beyond it until 1945 at the end of World War II. The 1940’s saw the beginning of the Atomic Age, where modern physics saw new applications such as the atomic bomb, the first computers, and the transistor. The Digital Revolution ended the intellectual model of the machine age founded in the mechanical and heralding a new more complex model of high technology. The Digital Era has been called the Second Machine Age, with its increased focus on machines that do mental tasks. (v)

The Digital Age has brought about the creation of true robotics where machines are not only used to handle difficult, calculation intensive tasks, but also to do many tasks automatically and generally without the need for supervision. Not only this, but they usually do them better, faster and more efficiently than they could be done by human beings. Think of automatic welding machines in a car manufacturing plant. The work is tedious, laborious, time consuming and physically fatiguing. Robots can do the same process over and over without tiring and requiring only minimal downtime for maintenance and servicing.

What is the new machine age?

In getting our jobs done, humans provide the role of sensing, perceiving, computing, and decision-making. We play these roles in both making and operating machines. For example, automobiles themselves cannot take us from one place to another (even this is changing,). We need to drive by adding our cognitive roles to those dumb machines. The invention and continued progression of different technologies like sensors, microprocessors, algorithms, and machine learning have been forming a technology core for imitating humans’ cognitive role. Hence, like in the past, progress has started to reinvent machines by changing human-centric cognitive capability with this new technology core-cognitive. Hence, we have started witnessing next-generation machines – intelligent ones. (vi)

One of the greatest contributors to the development of machines and their capabilities in enhancing the quality and standard of living of human beings has been the development of the computer – a machine in its own right. Computerisation has propelled the development of the human race at an exponentially faster pace. Computers have also resulted in the appearance of the next age – The Information Age.

The Information Age

The Information Age (also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, Silicon Age, New Media Age, Media Age, or Third Industrial Revolution) is a historical period that began in the mid-20th century. It is characterised by a rapid shift from traditional industries, as established during the Industrial Revolution, to an economy centred on information technology. The Information Age has been linked to the development of the transistor in 1947 and the optical amplifier in 1957. These technological advances have had a significant impact on the way information is processed and transmitted.(vii)

It is clear to see that machinery is now an all-encompassing description of any type of complex tool which is used to make human lives better, faster, easier. And the developments in machinery are continuing. We are moving towards a time when machinery will do more and more tasks in an automated way in order to reduce stress on humans and to make more time for more important and critical-thinking processes.

Chapter 2 – Signage

As this course is presented by a company involved in the Signage market, it is important that we provide you with an idea of what signage is and what elements make up signage as a whole. The signage industry is a major contributor to the global GDP. Due to its close ties with printed items, it is often closely aligned, and sometimes even considered a part of, the printing industry. However, such is the size and importance of signage that it is generally taken as a separate entity.

So, what is Signage? Retail signage can range from backgrounds, banners, and pop-up displays to graphics and posters. Signage has long been an important instrument for quickly conveying messages to viewers as well as for evoking feelings and an atmosphere that live up to a brand promise and indicate essential organisational signals. Signage is any kind of visual display used to convey information. For example, informational business signs can help people make decisions, know how to act, or provide advice. Other types of influential signage can contain marketing information to encourage the reader about the benefits of a product or service.

Signage can be printed, cut, fabricated and created in a number of different ways. It can be small or large, bold or almost inconspicuous. It can be informational, instructional or warning in nature. One thing which is certain, regardless of the language, the function and the meanings, Signage is global and it has been around for quite some time in one form or another, essentially since the time written language came into being. Signage is very often a universal form of communication even when the actual language is not known or understood. Think of the Red Cross denoting a hospital. This is globally understood. 

The importance of Signage is fairly self-evident, especially when considering informational signage. Other forms of signage act more as advertising for companies, services and events, among other things. However, when considering the sheer volume and variety of signage it becomes clear that signage is a massive global industry. Such is the size of the industry that it has gradually, and organically been split into printed or traditional signage and digital signage. Digital Signage is the latecomer to the signage market, however, it is rapidly making up a significant portion of the overall market. 

Global Printed Signage Market Overview

Printed Signage Market Size was valued at USD 41.5 Billion in 2022 or R787120125000,00. The Printed Signage market is projected to grow from USD 42.0 Billion in 2023 (R796603500000,00) to USD 45.8 Billion (R868677150000,00) by 2032, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.10 per cent during the forecast period (2023 – 2032). (Values for the South African marketplace are not available as there is no accurate method of reporting or industry body actively measuring or recording statistics) Economies of scale, an increase in the usage of printed signage for marketing and advertising, and a globalisation of brand identities, are the key market drivers enhancing the market growth.  (viii)

The market for printed signage is expanding primarily due to an increase in the use of printed signage over digital signage in shopping centres, retail establishments, and other locations. Market expansion is once again being driven by ease of deployment without the requirement for additional maintenance expenses. The retail sector’s increasing emphasis on investing in advertising to acquire a competitive edge in the market is once more driving market expansion. (ix)

The market’s expansion is primarily driven by cost-effectiveness, since it provides affordable and effective signage solutions for a variety of sectors. The main factors assisting the printed signage market to endure in the face of fierce competition from the rising digital signage are the low deployment costs and longer lifespan of these types of signs. The convenience of deployment without the requirement for additional maintenance expenses is the major factor driving most organisations and companies to choose printed signage solutions.(x)

Today, it is considerably easier to promote a brand internationally due to the widespread availability of the internet and the expansion of social media. A well-known brand identity can help expand markets and promote new product varieties that are catered to regional tastes. Brands can be effectively promoted through signage in international markets.  Whether the goal is to debut a new brand or keep an existing one in the public eye, eye-catching signage placed in prominent locations will draw attention to the brand in a neighbourhood. (xi)

Printed Signage Types

The Printed Signage Market segmentation, based on type, includes banner and backdrop, corporate graphics, exhibitions, and trade shows, backlit displays, pop display, billboards, and other signage types. Banner and backdrop segment dominated the global market in 2022. This is due to its wide-ranging use in the retail sector. These have a history of encouraging customers to make impulsive purchases and drawing them inside the store, particularly in the retail industry. (xii)

The Printed Signage Market segmentation, based on print technology, includes screen, inkjet, sheetfed, and other print technologies. The sheetfed segment dominated the global market in 2022. This is because vendors are spending more money on sheetfed presses. However, it is important to mention that the majority of the printed signage is produced on digital printing presses. Conventional or traditional presses are hardly ever used for signed printing due to economies of scale. (xiii)

The Printed Signage Market segmentation, based on end user verticals, includes BFSI, retail, transportation and logistics, healthcare, and other end-user verticals (sports and entertainment, etc.). Retail segment dominated the Printed Signage Market in 2022. The market for printed signs is anticipated to rise more as the retail sector concentrates on growing and makes significant investments in advertising and marketing. The rise of e-commerce has helped the retail sector grow exponentially, but brick-and-mortar stores continue to hold the majority of the market. Nevertheless, e-commerce is expanding very quickly. (xiv)

Digital Signage Market Size

The global digital signage market size was estimated at USD 26.76 billion(R50755023000,00) in 2023 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.1% from 2024 to 2030. This market growth is accredited to the increasing demand for the digitised promotion of products and services to attract the attention of the target audience in an effective manner. Furthermore, the demand for 4K digitised sign displays (digital signage displays) with embedded software and media player is rising as it offers customers an affordable Ultra HD digital signage solution, which is also expected to drive the demand. The evolution of innovative products, such as home monitoring systems, leak detector systems, and so on, along with complicated monetary products, such as forex cards, that need informative and succinct advertisement content are some of the factors that are predicted to drive the product demand. (xv)

Moreover, there is a rising demand for adopting advanced products that require digitised information management and guidance that can be accessed from remote locations. This is one of the key drivers anticipated to drive the global industry during the forecast period. Digital signage boards offer the necessary quality information to a large number of viewers by utilising large display screens across the location with a concentrated target audience. With digital signage display technology, information is provided in a digitised format that includes motion and pictures to attract customers with more impact as compared to the traditional modes of reaching out to customers. In addition, the integration of biometric technology with modern digitised signs has developed products, such as track heat paths and gaze tracking. (xvi)

All these factors are expected to catalyse the overall industry growth. With the advancement in display technologies, the evolution of LCD, LED, UHD, OLED, and Super AMOLED is further strengthening the industry growth. These technologies have led to the enhancement of the quality of advertisement content, thus creating a favourable impact on the target audience. The adoption of such technologies by digital poster providers is anticipated to boost overall industry growth. (xvii)

Chapter 3 – What is CNC?

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer software dictates the movement of factory tools and machinery. The process can be used to control a range of complex machinery, from grinders and lathes to mills and CNC routers. With CNC machining, three-dimensional cutting tasks can be accomplished in a single set of prompts. (xviii)

The CNC process runs in contrast to – and thereby supersedes – the limitations of manual control, where live operators are needed to prompt and guide the commands of machining tools via levers, buttons and wheels. To the onlooker, a CNC system might resemble a regular set of computer components, but the software programs and consoles employed in CNC machining distinguish it from all other forms of computation. (xiv)

When a CNC system is activated, the desired cuts are programmed into the software and dictated to corresponding tools and machinery, which carry out the dimensional tasks as specified, much like a robot.

In CNC programming, the code generator within the numerical system will often assume mechanisms are flawless, despite the possibility of errors, which is greater whenever a CNC machine is directed to cut in more than one direction simultaneously. The placement of a tool in a numerical control system is outlined by a series of inputs known as the part program. (xv)

How CNC works

With a numerical control machine, programs are input via punch cards. By contrast, the programs for CNC machines are fed to computers through keyboards. CNC programming is retained in a computer’s memory. The code itself is written and edited by programmers. Therefore, CNC systems offer far more expansive computational capacity. Best of all, CNC systems are by no means static since newer prompts can be added to pre-existing programs through revised code. (xvi)

CNC machining makes it possible to pre-program the speed and position of machine tool functions and run them via software in repetitive, predictable cycles, all with little involvement from human operators. In the CNC machining process, a 2D or 3D CAD drawing is conceived, which is then translated to computer code for the CNC system to execute. After the program is input, the operator gives it a trial run to ensure no mistakes are present in the coding. (xvii)

Due to these capabilities, the process has been adopted across all corners of the manufacturing sector, and CNC manufacturing is especially vital in the areas of metal and plastic production. (xviii)

During the CNC manufacturing process, position control is determined through an open-loop or closed-loop system. With the former, the signalling runs in a single direction between the CNC controller and motor. With a closed-loop system, the controller is capable of receiving feedback, which makes error correction possible. Thus, a closed-loop system can rectify irregularities in velocity and position. (xix)

In CNC machining, movement is usually directed across X and Y axes. The tool, in turn, is positioned and guided via stepper or servo motors, which replicate exact movements as determined by the G-code. If the force and speed are minimal, the process can be run via open-loop control. For everything else, closed-loop control is necessary to ensure the speed, consistency and accuracy required for industrial applications, such as metalwork. (xx)

CNC and code

There are essentially two types of code used in CNC machinery (in broad terms) readable code and unreadable code. Readable code is the code created by humans where it is possible for the code to be generated, read and corrected by a human being. It is also possible for readable code to be generated by computer or software, but the important factor is that it can be edited or corrected by a human being to remove or correct mistakes. These will be code written in Python or Java, as well as other similar programs, or software created code such as G-Code and HPGL where the coder has access to the code and the ability to edit it. In G-Code for example, the program is created by the operators and is translated to the machine through a language called G-code. It is called this because most of the words and parts of the code start with the letter G. However, the G-code will vary from different machines and manufacturers.

G-code is a CNC programming language that directs a CNC machine’s functions related to the cutting tool’s movement. It stands for ‘Geometric code.’ G-code guides the CNC machine’s actions by combining instructions readable by the microcontroller. This simple programming language requires no intricate logic or mathematical skills. (xxi)

G-code programming is embedded in the firmware of nearly all machine tools, including CNC mills, lathes, and 3D printers. While specific languages may vary between manufacturers, they generally adhere to the same principles, with most codes remaining consistent. Understanding G-code for CNC machines is not complex. It is straightforward to comprehend the basics, workings, and the creation of G-code for your next project. Continue reading to explore everything about G-code for CNC machines. (xxii)

A G-code file is plain text; it’s not exactly human readable, but it’s pretty easy to look through the file and figure out what’s going on. G-codes tell the controller what sort of motion is desired. (xxiii)

Then there is unreadable code. This is code which is generated by a software application for reading and interpretation by another device. The code cannot be read by a human and errors can only be corrected at source or in the design process. Think of creating a design on the computer, then sending it to a printer where the printer has to output it. The code that is generated by the computer is known as the RIP file or the raster image processor file. This file cannot be read or edited once generated and is only used by the printer to output the desired image. If errors are present in the design file (whether obvious or not), the RIP file will also contain those errors and the errors will be output as such or, not output if the file cannot be read by the printer. 

CNC Machining is fully automated

In today’s CNC protocols, the production of parts via pre-programmed software is mostly automated. The dimensions for a given part are set into place with computer-aided design (CAD) software and then converted into an actual finished product with computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software. (xxiv)

Any given workpiece could necessitate a variety of machine tools, such as drills and cutters. In order to accommodate these needs, many of today’s machines combine several different functions into one cell. (xxv)

Chapter 4 – Types of CNC Machines (xxvi)

There are multiple ways to classify a CNC machine. The most basic form is according to the design and function of the CNC machine. There are numerous different types of machines. Below is a list of types of CNC Machines and some of the more traditional uses of those machines. However, it is important to bear in mind that while these “standard” uses are the typical or norm, some of the devices can be used in other sectors or for other applications.

CNC Milling Machine

CNC milling machines use cutting tools to remove material from a workpiece and shape it accurately to the required specifications. The workpiece is usually fixed in location while the high-speed rotating cutting tool removes material from it. CNC mills can have a wide range of cutting tools, each having a different purpose. Some typical cutting tools are end mills, reamers, face mills, taps, and drills. These machines come in both vertical and horizontal versions. Some typical applications of CNC milling machines are: Cabinets, Furniture, Prototype models, Signage and Musical Instruments. CNC milling is a widely adopted technology since it fulfils its purpose successfully, providing high-speed manufacturing with precision CNC machining.

CNC Router Machines

CNC routers cut various shapes and designs on flat surfaces of any material. These machines replace multiple manual tools traditionally used in carpentry and metalworking workshops, such as boring machine tools, panel saws, and spindle moulders. Due to the ability of CNC routers to cut intricate shapes, the applications include: Carved wood furniture, Moldings, Interior and exterior decorations, Door carvings, Signage and Musical instruments. CNC routers usually consist of parts like a spindle, extraction system, and vacuum system.

CNC Plasma Cutters

A CNC plasma cutting machine delivers a highly accurate cut. It uses an electrical discharge arc (like a plasma torch) to ionise the air and melt the material where the electrical arc strikes. Since it works through an electrical arc, the process only applies to electrically conductive materials.

The applications of CNC Plasma Cutters include: Automobile manufacturing, Automotive repairs, Fabrication shops and Salvage and scrapping. Plasma cutting only cuts through metals and conductive alloys. This limitation is a deal breaker for users who wish to machine materials like wood and plastics.

CNC Lathes and Turning Machines

CNC lathe machines work by revolving the workpiece material around a central axis. Cutting tools are then applied to the workpiece to remove material and shape it into the required. A CNC lathe machine can produce a finished product much faster with more precision than manual lathes. CNC lathe machines are ideal for various processes, like cutting, sanding, facing, drilling, turning, knurling, etc. In CNC turning, a non-rotary tool moves linearly on a rotating workpiece to create a helical/spiral cutting path.

A CNC lathe machine finds applications in almost every manufacturing industry.

CNC Laser Cutting Machine

CNC laser cutters use a highly focused laser beam to cut sheets of any material. A CNC laser cutter machine produces cuts with even greater precision than plasma cutting. CNC laser cutters are not limited to conductive materials, as solid-state lasers can cut any material. Applications of CNC Laser Cutters include: Aerospace parts, Automobile frames, Medical Equipment and to Engrave materials. Laser-cutting machines require highly qualified operators to work with them. Laser-cutting machines can be potentially dangerous, so the operator must know how to control them as the laser beam moves over the workpiece.

CNC Electrical Discharge Machines (EDM)

An Electrical Discharge Machine (EDM) works similarly to plasma cutters by using an electrical arc to remove material at the required location. This method can create fast 2D cuts on metal sheet format.

Applications of CNC Electrical Discharge Machines include: Manufacturing Injection Molds, Die Casting, Blanking Punches and Prototyping. A CNC electrical discharge machine works only for conductive materials. You cannot use this method for machining plastics, ceramics, wood, or other non-conductive material.

CNC Waterjet Cutting Machine

A waterjet CNC machine uses a very thin jet of water to cut through the material. CNC waterjet cutting is one of the most versatile methods due to its ability to work on any material. Multi-axis CNC waterjet cutters are capable of 3D cuts as well. Additionally, the thickness of the material suitable for waterjet cutting is high. Applications of CNC Waterjet Cutting include: Foam, paper, stone, ceramic, glass, and sheet metal cutting; Mining; Aerospace; Automotive and General Fabrication.

CNC Grinding Machines

CNC surface grinders use rotating ceramic-blend grinding wheels to remove workpiece material for sanding, finishing, or polishing purposes. Diamond grinding wheels can provide exceptionally high-quality secondary finishing touches. Applications of CNC Grinders include: High precision gears, Automobile parts, Medical equipment, Aerospace parts and Tooling.

CNC Drilling Machine

A CNC drilling machine is one of the most common types of CNC machining process in workshops. It is ideal for drilling holes in any material for screws, secondary assembly, or aesthetic requirements. Applications of CNC Drilling Machine include: Automobile manufacturing, Shipbuilding, Astronautics, Engineering machinery, Mould making, Woodworking and furniture making.

Multi-axis CNC Machines

In addition to classifying the machines according to the type of function or working method, CNC machines are also classified according to the number of working axes. Once the type of CNC machine is determined, the specific equipment can be further segmented based on the number of axes. Multi-axis machining is a type of CNC machining that utilises multiple axes of movement in order to achieve complex geometries and tight tolerances.For instance, a CNC milling machine can come in a 3-axis, 4-axis, and 5-axis variant, and the price and capability of each will vary drastically. Below are some of the most popular types of CNC machines.

• 2 axis CNC machines are the most basic CNC systems out there. They contain two axes of movement – the X-axis (vertical axis) and the Y-axis (horizontal axis).These machines typically create simple straight-line cuts or drill holes on boards or machining of only a single surface of a workpiece without repositioning it. These machines work on a stationary workpiece.
• 3 axis CNC machines are the most common type of CNC machines. They have 3 axes of movement – the X, Y, and Z-axis (depth axis) and can machine the basic parts in 2.5 dimensions. They can work on all six surfaces of a typically square or rectangular block of material, but the block requires repositioning. These machines also work on a stationary workpiece.
• 4-axis CNC machines are similar to 3-axis machines. Besides the three axes – X, Y, and Z, a 4-axis machine also contains an axis of rotation. This axis allows the rotating cutting tool to move along the X-axis, known as the A-axis. The workpiece might also be moved along the same axis instead. These machines are ideal for making cutouts and cutting along an arc.
• 5-axis machining adds a pivoting motion of the cutting tool (or the work table) along the Y-axis. The axis of rotating and pivoting is called the C-axis. These machines can create intricate and accurate parts due to the ability to work on five surfaces of a workpiece simultaneously without repositioning the work surface. 
• A 6-axis CNC machine adds a third rotary direction to the cutting tool (or the workpiece), known as the B-axis. These machines can create shapes of any possible surface finish by involving all possible movement directions of the cutting tool and workpiece. These machines are typical in the medical, aerospace, and military industries for precision applications.
• 7-axis CNC machines have three traditional axes involving the movement of the cutting tool, three axes for rotating the workpiece, and a seventh axis that rotates the arm holding the cutting tool. This axis is called the E-axis. These machines often manufacture aerospace, medical, and military equipment due to the complexity of the parts they can produce.
• 9-axis CNC machines are a combined CNC setup of a 5-axis milling machine and a 4-axis lathe machine. The milling machine works on the surface to create the required surface finish, while the lathe completes the internal features of the workpiece. This way, a 9-axis machine can make both internal and external features of the part. These machines can make dental implants, surgical tools, and complex aerospace equipment.
• 12-axis CNC machines are the most complex machinery in the industry and may be overkill for most applications. These CNC machines contain two cutting heads that move in all 6 possible axes – X, Y, Z, A, B, and C. These machines exponentially increase the accuracy and can double production speed or even more.

Chapter 5 – Robotics

Robotics is a burgeoning and developing market sector. It is often viewed as futuristic, however, robotics already has actual practical applications and the field is growing rapidly. Robotics is the science of creating, designing, and using robots. Robots are real-world machines programmed to do things on their own or with a bit of human help. It is like a tech dance between computers and machines. Picture giving everyday things the superpower to move and do stuff all on their own.

The main components of robots

Robots are made up of a number of components which enable them to function and perform the tasks they were designed for. The main components are the Sensors, for gathering of information, Actuators to allow for motion, Control Systems for the processing of data and the Power Supply to provide fuel for the other systems to work. Each of these elements are essential and there are different types of each component depending on the requirements of the robot, its operation and its functions.

Types of Robots

There are many different types of robots each for performing a specific function. Very often the types of robots are determined by the industry in which they are used or the function they will have to perform. It is important to understand that robots are not the science-fiction “beings”we see in movies where they are capable of human thought and action. They are machines designed to perform specific functions, often tedious functions which would be laborious for human beings. 

Examples of robots include: Humanoid Robots (like the science fiction robots) used in customer service and R&D, Hospital Robots used in surgery as well as patient transport and Articulated Robots with multiple joints such as in automotive manufacture, Industrial Robots also used in manufacture. There are many other types but this gives an idea of the variety. Robots are programmable, in a similar way to how CNC machines are programmable. 

While CNC machines are generally based on static programming, that is they are programmed to handle a specific function and cannot do anything else, certain robots are often based on dynamic code. This means that they can be “taught” or programmed to respond to external prompts or stimuli and to make calculated corrections in order to work around those factors. However, not all robots use this Artificial Intelligence. 

Artificial Intelligence in Robotics

Modern Robots do have an element of artificial intelligence, however, a robot without artificial intelligence is still a robot. While it is safe to assume that a robot with artificial intelligence would be capable of more than a pre-programmed robot, all robots whether they possess a level of artificial intelligence or not are designed to make the lives and activities of humans easier.

Robotics and Artificial Intelligence are two terms that are often confused and sometimes not distinguished, but they actually refer to different technologies. Artificial intelligence is a discipline that focuses on enabling machines to develop the same intellectual capabilities as humans. Robotics, on the other hand, is the science of designing and building physical robots to improve automation and innovation. (xxvii)

Robotics and AI are two related fields of science and technology, but with several differences. Robotics is the discipline that deals with designing machines capable of automating tasks. In this sense, robotics experts also create, programme and operate these automated elements to develop certain skills and tasks. (xxviii)

Meanwhile, artificial intelligence is a branch of computing that studies how machines can mimic the cognitive processes of humans, learning and reasoning in order to solve problems and carry out specific tasks, just as a human being would. AI experts design algorithms so that machines are able to learn autonomously, solve problems, understand language and reason using logic. (xxix)

The main difference between robotics and Artificial Intelligence lies in the approach. Robotics focuses on the manipulation of the physical area, while AI is oriented towards the internal or digital part. (xxx)

Another difference is the area of application. On the one hand, robotics creates machines that have their own mobility and can interact with the environment. They are generally used to perform repetitive, high-speed or high-precision tasks, e.g. in industrial sectors of chain production or in the field of medicine. On the other hand, artificial intelligence focuses on data processing and algorithm design. In this sense, it is applied in a variety of contexts, from personalised care to education. (xxxi)

On the other hand, robots are programmed to follow a set of instructions in a repetitive way and are perfect for improving the productivity of companies in a number of sectors. AI, on the other hand, although it can also be used in multiple contexts, is more dynamic. For example, an AI system can be used to process banking data and make investment decisions, but it can also be used to analyse medical information and prepare for surgery.(xxxii)

Relationship between artificial intelligence and robotics (xxxiv)

Although there are quite a few differences between robotics and Artificial Intelligence, they are two branches that benefit from each other. Primarily, AI is used to improve skills such as movement, adapting to the environment, optimising performance, diagnosing errors and performing autonomous tasks of machines, i.e. it improves the learning and application capabilities of robots.

Both robotics and AI aim to automate tasks and facilitate processes for humans, and use data collected by input and output sensors to facilitate decision-making.

In this sense, it is increasingly common to see work environments where machines collaborate with people to improve different tasks. This human-machine collaboration is embodied in cobots or collaborative robots, which are specifically designed to perform tedious tasks that require greater effort. Their applications are useful in almost any sector, and they are gradually being adapted to different environments.

Both technological fields require specific knowledge for their correct manipulation, which is why experts working in these areas have studied computer science, physics or engineering.   

On the other hand, AI allows robots to communicate intelligently, not only with human operators, but also with other robots. Thus, machines can understand needs and work collaboratively to solve problems.

It is also important to note that the application of artificial intelligence in robotics is still challenging, both technologically and ethically. For example, the safety of autonomous decision-making by robots has not been guaranteed. To this end, the involvement of a human capable of supervising the tasks is necessary. Although machines do not usually make mistakes, there is always a certain margin of error.

AI is a very broad concept and field of study including everything from thinking computers and robots to developments such as ChatGPT, which is making its presence felt in every area of business and daily life. The impact of AI in robotics and, by extension, in manufacturing will become increasingly more widespread.

Chapter 6 – Industry 4.0

Earlier in this course we addressed the history of machinery and how that brought about the Industrial Revolution with the development of the Industrial Age in the 1800’s and how continued development brought about the Second Industrial Revolution in the 1900’s followed by the Third Industrial Revolution in the mid-2000’s with the arrival of the Information Age. Well all of this has now culminated in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. But what is the Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0 as it is known. 

Industry 4.0 can be defined as the integration of intelligent digital technologies into manufacturing and industrial processes. It encompasses a set of technologies that include industrial IoT networks, AI, Big Data, robotics, and automation. Industry 4.0 allows for smart manufacturing and the creation of intelligent factories. It aims to enhance productivity, efficiency, and flexibility while enabling more intelligent decision-making and customisation in manufacturing and supply chain operations. In the early stages of its development it was also known as IoT or Internet of Things due to the aim to interlink and connect different technologies and facets of daily life via the Internet. Now, however, IoT has merely become one aspect of Industry 4.0. (xxxvi)

Today’s Industry 4.0 initiatives also look to develop symbiotic and rewarding collaborations between people and technology. When the accuracy and speed of 4.0 tools comes together with the creativity, talent, and innovation of people, you get a win/win for both the workforce and bottom line. Manufacturing operations become more efficient and productive, and teams are relieved of a lot of mundane and repetitive tasks – giving them the opportunity to collaborate with smart technologies and better equip themselves for the evolving technological landscape and the AI-powered future of work.

Any definition of Industry 4.0 would also have to include its origin from the term Fourth Industrial Revolution. Since the 1800s, we have experienced three industrial revolutions. They were called “revolutions” because the innovation that drove them didn’t just slightly improve productivity and efficiency – it completely revolutionised how goods were produced and how work was done. We are now in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, aka Industry 4.0. (xxxvii)

• First industrial revolution
  By the early 1800s, the First Industrial Revolution was underway. The invention of the steam engine reduced industrial reliance on animal and human labour, ushering in a new age of manufacturing and precision engineering. (xxxviii)
• Second industrial revolution
  A century later, the growing use of petroleum and electric power meant that machinery could be leaner and less cumbersome. The Second Industrial Revolution was driven by the assembly line and mass production processes, many of which are still in use today. (xiL)
• Third industrial revolution
  Around the middle of the 20 th century, computers hit the scene. The Third Industrial Revolution saw the early development of factory automation and robotics. This era also saw the first use of computerised business systems that were built to manage and analyse data. (XL)
• Fourth industrial revolution
  Today, manufacturing is increasingly powered by information. Vast amounts of data come from across the business and around the world, in real time, around the clock. AI is at the heart of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, allowing manufacturers to not only gather all that data but use it – to analyse, predict, understand, and report. Industry 4.0 is not characterised by a single technology. It is defined by the seamless integration of a number of systems, tools, and innovations. (XLi)
• Industry 4.0 is built on nine technology pillars. These innovations bridge the physical and digital worlds and make smart and autonomous systems possible. Businesses and supply chains already use some of these advanced technologies, but the full potential of Industry 4.0 comes to life when they’re used together. (XLii)

Industry 4.0 technologies (XLiii)

Big Data and AI analytics: In an Industry 4.0 landscape, Big Data is collected from a wide range of sources. Of course, this includes capturing data from assets, equipment, and IoT-enabled devices. Data sources also extend outside the factory floor, into other areas of the business and the world. They can include everything from customer reviews and market trends that inform R&D and design, to weather and traffic apps that help ensure smoother logistics. Analytics powered by AI and machine learning are applied to the data in real time – and insights are leveraged to improve decision-making and automation in every area of manufacturing and supply chain management.

Horizontal and vertical integration: An essential framework of Industry 4.0 is horizontal and vertical integration. With horizontal integration, processes are tightly integrated at the “field level” – on the production floor, across multiple production facilities, and across the entire supply chain. With vertical integration, all the layers of an organisation are tied together – and data flows freely from the shop floor to the top floor and back down again. In other words, production is tightly integrated with business processes like R&D, quality assurance, sales and marketing, and other departments –reducing data and knowledge silos and streamlining operations. 

Cloud computing: Cloud computing is the “great enabler” of Industry 4.0 and digital transformation. Today’s cloud technology provides the foundation for most advanced technologies – from AI and machine learning to IoT integration – and gives businesses the means to innovate. The data that fuels Industry 4.0 technologies resides in the cloud, and the cyber-physical systems at the core of Industry 4.0 use the cloud to communicate and coordinate in real time.  

Augmented reality (AR): Augmented reality typically overlays digital content on to a real environment. With an AR system, employees use smart glasses or mobile devices to visualise real-time IoT data, digitalised parts, repair or assembly instructions, training content, and more – all while looking at a physical thing like a piece of equipment or a product. AR is still emerging but has major implications for maintenance, service, and quality assurance, as well as technician training and safety.  

Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): The Internet of Things (IoT) – more specifically, the Industrial Internet of Things – is so central to Industry 4.0 that the two terms are often used interchangeably. Most physical things in Industry 4.0 – devices, robots, machinery, equipment, products – use sensors and RFID tags to provide real-time data about their condition, performance, or location. This technology lets companies run smoother supply chains, rapidly design and modify products, prevent equipment downtime, stay on top of consumer preferences, track products and inventory, and much more. 

Additive manufacturing/3D printing: Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing was initially used as a rapid prototyping tool but now offers a broader range of applications, from mass customisation to distributed manufacturing. With 3D printing, parts and products can be stored as design files in virtual inventories and printed on demand at the point of need – reducing both costs and the need for off-site/off-shore manufacturing. Every year, the extent of 3D printing grows more varied, increasingly including base filaments such as metals, high-performance polymers, ceramics, and even biomaterials. 

Autonomous robots: With Industry 4.0, a new generation of autonomous robots is emerging. Programmed to perform tasks with minimal human intervention, autonomous robots vary greatly in size and function, from inventory scanning drones to autonomous mobile robots for pick and place operations. Equipped with cutting-edge software, AI, sensors, and machine vision, these robots are capable of performing difficult and delicate tasks – and can recognise, analyse, and act on information they receive from their surroundings.

Simulation/digital twins: A digital twin is a virtual simulation of a real-world machine, product, process, or system based on IoT sensor data. This core component of Industry 4.0 allows businesses to better understand, analyse, and improve the performance and maintenance of industrial systems and products. An asset operator, for example, can use a digital twin to identify a specific malfunctioning part, predict potential issues, and improve uptime.  

Cybersecurity: With the increased connectivity and use of Big Data in Industry 4.0, effective cybersecurity is paramount. By implementing a Zero Trust architecture and technologies like machine learning and blockchain, companies can automate threat detection, prevention, and response – and minimise the risk of data breaches and production delays across their networks.

Industry 4.0 and Robotics (XLiv)

The manufacturing industry has come a long way from the days of manual labour to the era of automation. With the emergence of Industry 4.0, the focus has shifted toward achieving an interconnected, digitised, automated manufacturing ecosystem.

Industry 4.0 aims to create a smart factory where machines, devices, and products communicate, increasing efficiency and productivity. However, achieving these objectives requires the integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and robotics.

In recent years, robotics has emerged as a crucial technology in implementing Industry 4.0 objectives. Robotics, in simple terms, is the use of machines to perform tasks that humans would otherwise perform. With the advancement in robotics technology, it has become possible to automate even complex and repetitive tasks, increasing productivity and efficiency in manufacturing processes. Robotics can bring about a paradigm shift in manufacturing, leading to a more efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable industry.

Many options are available to manufacturers, from industrial to collaborative and mobile robots. Integrating these robots into manufacturing processes increases productivity, reduces costs, and enhances safety. Using robotics also helps manufacturers improve the quality of their products and meet customer demands more efficiently.

However, implementing robotics comes with its challenges, such as high costs, the need for specialised skills, and potential job displacement. Nevertheless, the benefits of robotics far outweigh the challenges, and the future of the manufacturing industry lies in the seamless integration of robotics and other Industry 4.0 technologies.

The role of robotics in achieving Industry 4.0 objectives is crucial, as it can potentially revolutionise the manufacturing industry in many ways. To understand better, here are a few ways in which robotics plays a vital role in achieving Industry 4.0 objectives including: Increased Productivity, Improved Quality, 

Reduced Costs, Enhanced Safety, Flexibility, Data Collection and Improved Working Conditions.

At the core, the role of robotics in Industry 4.0 has transformed the manufacturing, transportation, and logistics industries in numerous ways. With the help of robotics, manufacturing technology companies have been able to automate various tasks, resulting in increased productivity, higher-quality products, and lower costs. In addition, transportation and logistics companies have also benefited from using robotics, with the faster and more accurate processing of orders.

As we move toward the future, it is expected that robotics will continue to play a significant role in the manufacturing industry. With technological advancements and the increasing demand for customised products, there is a growing need for industry 4.0 consulting and custom manufacturing software development. These services can help companies optimise their operations by implementing robotics and other technologies to increase efficiency and reduce costs.

Shortly, we can expect to see even more innovative uses of robotics in manufacturing, transportation, and logistics. For example, robotics and artificial intelligence may be used to predict and prevent machine failures, allowing for more efficient maintenance and repair. Moreover, robotics may expand beyond the factory floor and into areas such as customer service and inventory management.

Chapter 7 – AM.CO.ZA – what is it?

AM.CO.ZA is a supplier to the South African Signage market addressing all the major technology types including large-format printing, vinyl cutting, laser engravers, routers, and 3D printing systems. The company was formed in 2013 and has grown from just two people to a full team of more than 50 staff. It offers full-service sales, support and maintenance for all the devices it supplies. However, what sets it apart from other suppliers to the industry, other than the fact that it is a full spectrum supplier, is that it makes much of its intellectual knowledge freely available to customers in order to allow them to achieve the highest levels of productivity and efficiency. It also finds innovative ways to bring its products to market in the most affordable and effective manner possible ensuring that a wider audience is able to access its technology.

From a company built on supplying one or two machines a month, AM.CO.ZA has developed into a large-scale importer and supplier of equipment for all sectors of the Signage market with multiple container loads of equipment inbound to South Africa at any given time. Such has the success of its equipment and its business philosophy in the local market been, that the company expects its turnover to exceed R100 million during the 2024/25 financial year.

It is on the basis of this that AM.CO.ZA has established the Ambitious Academy to provide a base for new-to-industry, as well as established members of the industry to further their knowledge and expand their understanding in their chosen field and associated fields.

Ambitious Academy

Ambitious Academy will fill a two-fold role, training on and demonstration of solutions supplied by AM.CO.ZA. This will be practical, hands-on training offered to existing users as well as new entrants to the market. However, the Academy will also offer vocational-style training for people who want to enter the industry without any prior knowledge. Courses will be presented in-person and will be designed to provide information while at the same time encouraging self-study and further expansion of the individual’s knowledge base.

Students who attend the course will have to meet certain minimum requirements and levels of attendance in order to participate in and complete the course. Depending on the course which students attend, they may have the opportunity to participate in practical training sessions where they will not only learn how to operate the various machines, but also learn more in-depth information on the practical reasons for doing things a certain way. 

This direct approach will set Ambitious Academy apart from other training facilities where the aim is merely to teach operators how to use the machine over a specified period of time. The aim of the Ambitious Academy is to create a desire to learn more with the ultimate goal of improving not only the knowledge base of the individual, to expand their earning potential but also to offer companies access to employees who bring additional intrinsic value to the companies they work for.

The Ambitious Academy is actively seeking relationships with other centres for higher learning in order to offer their graduates and learners the opportunity to polish their specific skills with real industry experience in order to make them more suitable and attractive to potential employers in the Signage and associated industries.

Bibliography

(i) (ii) (iii) https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/what-most-common-types-applications-machine-tools#:~:text=The%20first%20recorded%20use%20of,mill%2C%20and%20the%20hydraulic%20press Written by various unnamed contributors and assembled by LinkedIn AI.

Published March 9, 2023.

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Author(s) not listed. Published by the Smithsonian Libraries and Archives.

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Published by Wikipedia, author(s) not listed. LAst edited 19 February 2024

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Published by Wikipedia, author(s) not listed. Last edited 19 March 2024

(viii) (ix) (x) (xi) (x) (xi) (xii) (xiii) (xiv)

Published by Market Research Future. Author(s) names not listed. Published 2023

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Published by Grand View Research. Authors and Publication dates not listed.

(xviii) (xiv) (xv)

What Is CNC Machining? An Overview of the CNC Machining Process

Posted by Brian Hess on May 22, 2021

(xvi) (xvii) (xviii) (xix) (xx)

Authors names and date of posting not listed

(xxi) (xxii) (xxiii) 

Written by Sam (surname unknown) Machine Specialist at AT-Machining. Posted  11 January 2024.

(xxiv) (xxv)

What Is CNC Machining? An Overview of the CNC Machining Process

Posted by Brian Hess on May 22, 2021

(xxvi) 

Extracted from What Are The 11 Main Types of CNC Machining: Operations & Processes

By Ronan Ye in CNC Machining Types  Posted October 04, 2022

(xxvii) (xxviii) (xxix) (xxx) (xxxi) (xxxii) (xxxiii) (xxxiv) (xxxv)

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(XLiv)

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Videos

History of machines – https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=94d2d025c9ea360a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&sxsrf=ACQVn0_sYUVOP8DNobUDW7kUYgbUTxFIcQ:1711352881417&q=history+of+machinery&tbm=vid&source=lnms&prmd=ivsnbmtz&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=2ahUKEwj-5NOk9o6FAxUyVUEAHT8ODLgQ0pQJegQIDRAB&biw=1366&bih=607&dpr=1#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:b5d5896d,vid:djB9oK6pkbA,st:0

The new machine age

The Information Age

https://www.google.com/search?q=the+information+age&sca_esv=94d2d025c9ea360a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&tbm=vid&prmd=ivnsbmtz&sxsrf=ACQVn0_yWaTNKd6IRBmz3ZKixnIkhRpiKw:1711353592256&ei=-C4BZrOiD_Dvi-gPj-mokAY&start=10&sa=N&ved=2ahUKEwiz_s33-I6FAxXw9wIHHY80CmIQ8NMDegQIBRAW&biw=1366&bih=607&dpr=1#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:9ff57ea7,vid:IPSaEKby0Pk,st:0        Very long, a bit boring but some good content.

CNC Machining

Robotics

https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=94d2d025c9ea360a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&sxsrf=ACQVn08-_vTtuhP6vubYfuKm-_d-6vOQPQ:1711354783190&q=robotics&tbm=vid&source=lnms&prmd=ivnsmbtz&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjr7r6v_Y6FAxXkSkEAHU2mAt8Q0pQJegQICxAB&biw=1366&bih=607&dpr=1#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:a7df1689,vid:htjRUL3neMg,st:0 Very simplistic

https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=94d2d025c9ea360a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&sxsrf=ACQVn08-_vTtuhP6vubYfuKm-_d-6vOQPQ:1711354783190&q=robotics&tbm=vid&source=lnms&prmd=ivnsmbtz&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjr7r6v_Y6FAxXkSkEAHU2mAt8Q0pQJegQICxAB&biw=1366&bih=607&dpr=1#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:b5c52ea3,vid:eqXQ80vlgqE,st:0 Interesting but maybe a bit long

This video has nice, simple explanations.

This one takes a while to get to the point

Annoying voice but maybe good content

Types of Robots

Artificial Intelligence in Robots
https://www.google.com/search?q=Artificial+Intelligence+in+robots&sca_esv=94d2d025c9ea360a&sca_upv=1&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&biw=1366&bih=607&tbm=vid&sxsrf=ACQVn09rUtVySPasJJCjQ7T6EkioTrBnwA%3A1711355279638&ei=jzUBZqLHJou1i-gPxKaEwAc&ved=0ahUKEwjiypuc_46FAxWL2gIHHUQTAXgQ4dUDCA0&uact=5&oq=Artificial+Intelligence+in+robots&gs_lp=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&sclient=gws-wiz-video#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:07f0ee3c,vid:bRsjfbqHj8k,st:0 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2JY38VShxI&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DArtificial%2BIntelligence%2Bin%2Brobots%26sca_esv%3D94d2d025c9ea360a%26sca_upv%3D1%26rlz%3D1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&source_ve_path=MA&feature=emb_rel_pause 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9btpkk_TWkI&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DArtificial%2BIntelligence%2Bin%2Brobots%26sca_esv%3D94d2d025c9ea360a%26sca_upv%3D1%26rlz%3D1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&source_ve_path=MA&feature=emb_rel_pause 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Abbli3B8phw&embeds_referring_euri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DArtificial%2BIntelligence%2Bin%2Brobots%26sca_esv%3D94d2d025c9ea360a%26sca_upv%3D1%26rlz%3D1C1CHMO_en-gbZA951ZA951&source_ve_path=MA&feature=emb_rel_pause

Industry 4.0

Interesting Reading

 Article on AI by Bill Gates from 2023